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Work is viewed as being beneficial for health and for social economic status [168]. However, when musculoskeletal pain (MSP) is present, work can be burdensome, resulting in reduced productivity, increased sick leave, and high costs for society [28, 56,121]. Obtaining better knowledge of risk factors for the onset of MSP and prognostic factors for the persistence of MSP could provide tailored interventions [59, 94,138].

In a healthy population various risk factors of MSP exist. As soon as MSP emerges, it may run its normal course; but in some people, pain lasts longer and may become chronic. These influencing factors are called prognostic factors. Several theoretical models have been proposed that describe the development and prolongation of MSP [72,122,162]. Some reflect contradictory theoretical relationships between the cause and consequence of MSP. For example, Waddell’s biopsychosociale model is based on neurophysiological or physiological dysfunction [162]. A work-related model is Kasarek’s Job Control-Demand model [72]. This situation-centred psychosocial model assumes that a disbalance between high job demands and low worker control results in poor subjective health. A personcentred model is the catastrophizing hypothesis model, which posits that fear of pain results in self-limitation of activity and could therefore be a prognostic factor [122]. All these models have their own paradigm, which may possibly lead to confusion. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), however, lacks a paradigm [168]. Instead of explaining causal relationships, the ICF classifies them (Fig. 1)[168]. Therefore …