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The present study examined father-–child relationships, parenting quality, and child psychological adjustment in 35 gay single father surrogacy families, 30 heterosexual single father surrogacy families, 45 gay two-father surrogacy families, and 45 heterosexual two-parent IVF families, when children were aged 3–10 years.

In each family, fathers were administered standardized questionnaires and interviews, and participated in three video-recorded observational tasks with their child. Teachers and a child psychiatrist further rated child adjustment.

The only differences across family types indicated greater parenting stress in gay and heterosexual single fathers. Irrespective of family type, lower sensitivity and supportive parenting predicted greater father-reported child internalizing problems; whereas lower rough-and-tumble play quality and sensitivity, greater negative parenting and …