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The aim of the current study was to evaluate the histopathological features of inflammation and the expression levels of inflammatory markers in tissue samples from patients with ketamine‑induced cystitis. Bladder biopsy samples for histological analysis were obtained from 23 patients (18 men and 5 women) with a self‑reported history of ketamine use and who were treated for cystitis at the Tri‑Service General Hospital of Taipei, Taiwan. Immunohistochemical staining for cyclooxygenase‑2 (COX‑2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), matrix metallopeptidase‑9 (MMP‑9), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and phosphorylated 40S ribosomal protein S6 (Phos‑S6) was performed. The results revealed urothelial atypia in all patients, and intravascular eosinophil accumulation in 22 patients. Histopathological features included denuded urothelial mucosa, ulceration, collagen deposition, smooth muscle …