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Historical ecology is presented as a complementary approach to evolutionary ecology. The prime distinction between the two approaches is the use of direct estimates of history in explanations by the former and of indirect estimates of history by the latter. Direct estimates of history are obtained by using phylogenetic systematics. They require analysis of many species simultaneously. Indirect estimates can be applied in individual cases and include such concepts as: (1) equating number of species in an ecological association with the age of the association; (2) equating the geographic range of a species with its age; and (3) equating the specificity of ecological interactions with the length of time species have been associated. Historical ecological methods have been applied in three general areas: (1) the historical context of geographic distribution patterns; (2) the historical context of ecological associations; and (3 …