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We evaluated factors limiting lactating Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) at three temperatures (10, 21 and 30°C). Energy intake and daily energy expenditure (DEE) increased with decreased ambient temperature. At peak lactation (day 14 of lactation), energy intake increased from 148.7±5.7 kJ day⁻¹ at 30°C to 213.1±8.2 kJ day⁻¹ at 21°C and 248.7±12.3 kJ day⁻¹ at 10°C. DEE increased from 105.1±4.0 kJ day⁻¹ at 30°C to 134.7±5.6 kJ day⁻¹ at 21°C and 179.5±8.4 kJ day⁻¹ at 10°C on days 14–16 of lactation. With nearly identical mean litter sizes, lactating gerbils at 30°C exported 32.0 kJ day⁻¹ less energy as milk at peak lactation than those allocated to 10 or 21°C, with no difference between the latter groups. On day 14 of lactation, the litter masses at 10 and 30°C were 12.2 and 9.3 g lower than those at 21°C, respectively. Lactating gerbils had higher thermal conductance of the fur and lower …