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Machine learning (ML) has revolutionized a number of science and engineering disciplines over the past few years. It is also being considered as a new direction of innovation to transform future fiber-optic communication systems. Recently, there has been an increasing amount of research in both industry and academia to embed and benefit from ML-based frameworks in various aspects of optical communications and networking and state-of-the-art results have already been achieved in many cases. However, in order to fathom real potential of ML in fiber-optic communication systems, it is imperative to have a basic understanding of fundamental ML concepts. In this chapter, we will describe the reasons behind recent popularity of ML paradigm in optical networks and why/where/how it can play a decisive role. We will discuss mathematical foundations of several key conventional ML techniques as well as modern …