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In the last several years a large number of studies have demonstrated the neurobiological and clinical continuum between depression and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Depression is a risk factor for the development of AD, and the presence of depressive symptoms significantly increases the conversion of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) into AD. Common pathophysiological events have been identified in depression and AD, including neuroinflammation with an aberrant Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α) signaling, and an impairment of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and Transforming-Growth-Factor-β1 (TGF-β1) signaling.

TGF-β1 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that exerts neuroprotective effects against amyloid-β (Aβ)-induced neurodegeneration, and it has a key role in memory formation and synaptic plasticity. TGF-β1 plasma levels are reduced in major depressed patients (MDD), correlate with …