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In the past century, the manufacturing industry has undergone significant paradigm shifts, from mass production (Ford assembly line)(1900s) to lean manufacturing (Toyota production system)(1960s), flexible manufacturing (mass customization)(1980s), reconfigurable manufacturing (1990s), collaborative manufacturing (2000s), and smart manufacturing (2010s)[1–3]. The development trend of the global manufacturing industry is shown in Fig. 1.

In 2010, Germany proposed the framework of Industry 4.0 in transforming factories towards smart manufacturing [4]. Industry 4.0 interprets major manufacturing paradigm shifts from the perspective of prominent breakthrough of enabling technologies. The 1st industrial revolution was signified by the invention of the steam engine, which empowered mechanical machines to expand manufacturing capabilities. The emergence of electrical energy indicated the 2nd industrial …