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The production and environmental release of surface-modified titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nTiO₂) have increased. Hence, crops may be directly exposed to the nTiO₂ in soil. In this study, we grew carrots in soils amended with pristine, hydrophilic and hydrophobic surface-coated nTiO₂ at 100, 200, and 400 mg kg⁻¹ until full-plant maturity. The content of Ti in plant secondary roots treated with different nTiO₂ at 400 mg kg⁻¹ was in the order of hydrophobic > hydrophilic > pristine treatments, with values of 140.1, 100.5, and 64.3 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. The fresh biomass of the taproot was significantly decreased by all nTiO₂ forms at 400 mg kg⁻¹ by up to 56 %, compared to control. Pristine nTiO₂ at 100 mg kg⁻¹ enhanced the fresh weight of leaves by 51 % with respect to control. Remarkably, an abnormal increase of taproot splitting was found in plants treated with all nTiO₂ forms. In carrots treated with the …