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Over the last decade, paternity analysis using molecular markers has revealed that observed mating systems do not necessarily correlate with reproductive systems and thus cannot provide reliable information about male reproductive success (RS). This is especially true for primate species with a complex multimale-multifemale social organization, such as mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). Using molecular markers for the measurement of individual RS and a comprehensive data set comprising 193 offspring from 27 birth cohorts over a 20-year period of sampling, we investigated the social, genetic, and demographic factors that may influence the probability of paternity by dominant male mandrills, living in a semi–free-ranging colony. We observed a significant skew in RS towards dominant males, with their probability of paternity increasing as the number of adult males in the group increased, and when they were …