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Accumulating evidence suggests that instructions in-ducing an" external" focus ofattention by directing learners' attention toward the effects oftheir movements enhance learning, compared to instructions directing attention to the movements themselves (" internal" focus; for a review, see Wulf & Prinz, 2001). Wulf, HoB, and Prinz (1998) first demonstrated external relative to internal focus advantages using ski-simulator and stabilometer tasks. In subsequent studies, this effect proved to be quite robust (eg, Shea & Wulf, 1999; Wulf, McNevin, & Shea, 2001) and generalizable to sports-related tasks, including golf (Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999), tennis (Wulf, McNevin, Fuchs, Ritter, & Toole, 2000), soccer, and volleyball skills (Wulf, McConnel, Gartner, & Schwarz, 2002). A" constrained action hypothesis"(Wulfet aI., 2001) was proposed to account for the greater effectiveness of an external compared to internal focus …