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ONE of the most basic questions facing democratic theory is who ought to be included in political participation. Many have argued that all affected by a political decision ought to be included, while others argue for a stronger criterion—that one must be coercively subject to the decision, for example. 1 Most recent discussions of this question have focused on the wrongful exclusion of those who ought to be included. A compelling case has been made that, in areas such as immigration policy, the decisions of polities do not merely affect those outside their borders, but actively coerce them. 2 It is then concluded that non-citizens have a right to participate in policy formation, at least when the policies in question affect them (under the weaker standard) or subject them to coercion (under the stronger). 3

Less attention has been paid to the question of whether political participation can be objectionably over-inclusive. Robert …