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While there is widespread agreement in societies like the UK that every child has the right to a secure childhood and the opportunity to develop to their full potential, this does not match with reality for many of the 4 million children under the age of 5 currently living in the UK. Through the lottery of birth, children are born into different socio-economic circumstances and grow up in environments that are remarkably different from each other. These deep environmental inequalities are present in a multitude of dimensions including educational, emotional and material environments. Increasing evidence shows that genetic differences also matter, and that environmental inequalities correlate and interact with inequalities in genetic endowments. Together, this means that by the time children enter school, their levels of cognitive, socioemotional and physical development are already vastly unequal.

Inequalities in early childhood–used in this chapter to denote the period from birth to school entry–are concerning not only because of the implications for children’s immediate lives and well-being, but also because of their importance for later development. Early childhood is a critical period for laying healthy foundations for subsequent cognitive, social, emotional and physical development and functioning, which in turn play key roles in shaping people’s economic, social and health trajectories. Without timely and appropriate mitigation, the developmental gaps already present between 5-year-olds from the most and least advantaged backgrounds persist and can widen, contributing to later inequalities in economic and social outcomes, much of which the IFS …