During the course of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) disease, the virus has
been shown to effectively escape the immune response with the subsequent establishment …

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) selectively targets and destroys the infection-fighting
CD4+ T-lymphocytes of the human immune system, and has a life cycle that encompasses …

Commonly misused substances such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and
opioids suppress immune responses and may impact viral pathogenesis. In recent years …

Over 1.2 million people in the United States are infected with the human immunodeficiency
virus type 1 (HIV-1). Tremendous progress has been made over the past three decades on …

HCV and HIV infections are very common among injection drug users (IDUs). It is well
known that 80–90% of HIV-infected IDUs are also infected with HCV. Furthermore, patients …

HIV infection has a significant impact on the natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV)
infection, with increased levels of HBV DNA, accelerated progression of liver disease and …

Drug and alcohol use complicate both the prevention and treatment of human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Substance use is one of the major engines driving …

Approximately 350 million people have chronic hepatitis B infection, a leading cause of
cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Patients who are infected through parenteral …

The consequences of hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-
infection on progression of severe liver diseases is a serious public health issue, worldwide …

Substance abuse still remains one of the major problems in the world today, with millions of
people abusing legal and illegal drugs. In addition, a billion people may also be infected …