Abstract Information bias occurs when any information used in a study is either measured or
recorded inaccurately. This paper describes some of the most common types of information …

Abstract Mackenzie, SG, and A. Lfppman (Dept of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, McGill U.,
Montreal, Quebec H3A 1A2, Canada). An investigation of report bias in a case-control study …

Confounding biases study results when the effect of the exposure on the outcome mixes with
the effects of other risk and protective factors for the outcome that are present differentially by …

Researchers sometimes argue that their exposure-measurement errors are independent of
other errors and are nondifferential with respect to disease, resulting in estimation bias …

Prospective and retrospective cohorts and case-control studies are some of the most
important study designs in epidemiology because, under certain assumptions, they can …

Information bias is one type of systematic error that can occur in epidemiologic studies. Bias
is any systematic error in an epidemiologic study that results in an incorrect estimate of the …

Most reported associations in observational clinical research are false, and the minority of
associations that are true are often exaggerated. This credibility problem has many causes …

When misclassification of exposure and disease is nondifferential but not independent of
one another, bias away from the null can result. For dichotomous variables, misclassification …

Confounding is an important source of bias, but it is often misunderstood. We consider how
confounding occurs and how to address confounding using examples. Study results are …

Misclassification of exposure in epidemiological studies has the effect of distorting the
results in various directions. We give quantitative information about the possible order of …