▪ Abstract Consideration of confounding is fundamental to the design, analysis, and
interpretation of studies intended to estimate causal effects. Unfortunately, the word …

The paper considers the properties of and relations between confounding and effect
modification from the perspective of causal inference and with a distinction drawn as to how …

Consideration of confounding is fundamental to the design and analysis of studies of causal
effects. Yet, apart from confounding in experimental designs, the topic is given little or no …

The causal inference literature has provided a clear formal definition of confounding
expressed in terms of counterfactual independence. The causal inference literature has not …

The term confounding by indication is increasingly used in the literature, although the
concept has lost much of its original meaning. The literature includes instances where …

Although one goal of aetiologic epidemiology is to estimate 'the true effect'of an exposure on
disease occurrence, epidemiologists usually do not precisely specify what 'true effect'they …

Background The counterfactual or potential outcome model has become increasingly
standard for causal inference in epidemiological and medical studies. Discussion This paper …

Epidemiologists are aware that the estimated effect of an exposure can be biased if the
investigator fails to adjust for confounding factors when analyzing either a prospective or …

Three assumptions sufficient to identify the average causal effect are consistency, positivity,
and exchangeability (ie,“no unmeasured confounders and no informative censoring,” or …

The preceding commentary by Fisher and Patil (1) deals with criteria for a confounding factor
and with the distinction between confounding and effectmodification. I take the authors and …