The term confounding by indication is increasingly used in the literature, although the
concept has lost much of its original meaning. The literature includes instances where …

In research addressing causal questions about relations between exposures and outcomes,
confounding is an issue when effects of interrelated exposures on an outcome are confused …

▪ Abstract Consideration of confounding is fundamental to the design, analysis, and
interpretation of studies intended to estimate causal effects. Unfortunately, the word …

abstract Confounding is a major concern in epidemiology. Despite its significance, the
different notions of confounding have not been fully appreciated in the literature, leading to …

Confounding is a concern in almost all nonrandomized studies in epidemiology.
Epidemiologic analyses are often subject to the criticism that some third factor might be …

Confounding by indication is a term used when a variable is a rise factor for a disease
among nonexposed persons and is associated with the exposure of interest in the …

Unmeasured confounding may undermine the validity of causal inference with observational
studies. Sensitivity analysis provides an attractive way to partially circumvent this issue by …

A critical assumption of causal inference is that of no unmeasured confounding: for
estimated exposure effects to have valid causal interpretations, a sufficient set of predictors …

Confounding is examined from first principles. in follow-up studies a confounder is a
predictor of diagnosing the illness–by being either a risk indicator or a determinant of …

Background The impact of unmeasured confounders on causal associations can be studied
by means of sensitivity analyses. Although several sensitivity analyses are available, these …