Biological materials–hard, soft, and hybrids of both phases–first appeared in marine environments in ancient oceans. Some of them can be found only in the forms of fossils, especially in cases where they are exceptionally preserved over millions of years. Others were so successful in their survival strategies that we now dwell in their amazing abundance which include unicellular (protists, diatoms, radiolarians) and multicellular (sponges, corals, molluscs, worms, echinoderms, arthropods) invertebrate organisms.

The origin of biological materials is closely connected with the formation of the first biominerals which occurred in the first ancestral unicellular organisms that evolved under the harsh environmental conditions of ancient aquatic niches. Both biologically induced and controlled mineralization promoted the development of protective biocomposites to shield cells from thermal, chemical, and ultraviolet stresses. Such conditions also allowed adaptation of unique extremophilic and polyextremophilic biomineralizers, which are still found today (ie, hydrothermal vents). In most cases, the mechanisms of these specialized biomineralogical phenomena remain unknown. Traditionally, most attention has been paid to biomineralization–in the last 50 years, the following topics have been studied: diverse aspects of biomineralization strategies, processes and mechanisms, biomineralizing phyla, evolutionary history and the Cambrian explosion, problems of the vital effect, and principles of control and design, including shaping of crystals with biomolecules and inspiration for biomaterials science. Especially, extreme biomineralization provides crucial information for progression in such modern scientific direction as extreme biomimetics. This exciting area of modern research holds promise for being the next step in creating the next generation of composites using organictemplating approaches under biologically extreme laboratory conditions. Today, the principal strategy for research which deals with biological materials of marine invertebrates’ origin is based on the following steps: