When a discrete cue (a “sign”) is presented repeatedly in anticipation of a food reward the
cue can become imbued with incentive salience, leading some animals to approach and …

Smoking is considered the leading cause of preventable death in the United States, but
studies in animals suggest that nicotine is only weakly reinforcing. The maintenance of a …

Drug-associated cues can acquire powerful motivational control over the behavior of
addicts, and can contribute to relapse via multiple, dissociable mechanisms. Most preclinical …

Rats were trained to respond with intravenous cocaine as the reinforcer under a fixed
interval 15-min schedule, during which conditioned stimuli paired with cocaine were …

Animals prefer an immediate over a delayed reward, just as they prefer a large over a small
reward. Exposure to psychostimulants causes long-lasting changes in structures critical for …

Rationale Behavior occurring during cocaine self-administration can be classified as either
consummatory or appetitive. These two concepts are usually addressed independently …

During a preexposure period rats were injected once daily with either cocaine HCl (10
mg/kg, IP) or the saline vehicle for 12 consecutive days. Rats that were chronically exposed …

We have previously shown that following extended access to cocaine, females, but not
males, show marked increases in motivation to obtain cocaine, and we have hypothesized …

Human and animal laboratory studies show that females and males respond differently to
drugs and that drug administration during adolescence leads to different behavioral effects …

In two experiments rats were trained to self-administer intravenous cocaine on chained
schedules using different responses in the initial (drug-seeking) and terminal (drug-taking) …