Defensive behaviors in animals and humans vary dynamically with increasing proximity of a
threat and depending upon the behavioral repertoire at hand. The current study investigated …

The brain is the central organ of stress and adaptation because it perceives what is
threatening and determines behavioral and physiological responses. Brain circuits are …

Although it has long been hypothesized that attachment figures provide individuals with a
sense of safety and security, the neural mechanisms underlying attachment-induced safety …

Communications among the nervous system, neuroendocrine system, and immune system
are bidirectional to better balance the demands of the internal and external milieu. By …

Faced with potential harm, individuals must estimate the probability of threat and initiate an
appropriate fear response. In the prevailing view, threat probability estimates are relayed to …

When extreme, anxiety—a state of distress and arousal prototypically evoked by uncertain
danger—can be debilitating. Uncertain anticipation is a shared feature of situations that elicit …

Survival is the primary motivation for living organisms—to preserve the life of the individual
and to ensure the propagation of their genetic inheritance. Two broad classes of stimulus …

Humans, like other animals, alter their behavior depending on whether a threat is close or
distant. We investigated spatial imminence of threat by developing an active avoidance …

Safety signals are learned cues that predict stress-free periods whereas behavioral control
is the ability to modify a stressor by behavioral actions. Both serve to attenuate the effects of …

Response to danger needs to be rapid and appropriate. In humans, nocifensive behaviors
often precede conscious pain perception. Much is known about local spinal cord circuits for …