Background Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-γ (IFNγ) increase expression of
tumour necrosis factor-α (TNFα) that characterizes the M1 activation state of macrophages …

Adverse effects of age on the outcome of brain injury are well documented, but the
mechanism is not well understood. Enhanced expression of proinflammatory cytokines and …

Several brain disorders associated with neuroinflammation show sex differences in their
incidence, onset, progression and/or outcome. The different regulation of the …

Highlights•TBI is the main cause of death and disability in children and young
adults.•Secondary brain injury may occur for month and years after injury.•Cognitive decline …

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with mortality and morbidity worldwide.
Accumulating pre-clinical and clinical data suggests TBI is the leading extrinsic cause of …

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of death and disability in young adults in the
developed world. The accuracy of early outcome-prediction remains poor even when all …

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an all too common cause of morbidity and mortality, an event
that is especially tragic in young people with many years of life ahead that can be affected. A …

Aging is a process of intrinsic, progressive, and generalized physical deterioration that
occurs over time, beginning at about the age of reproductive maturity. Aging steadily …

Aging is associated with an exaggerated response to peripheral inflammatory challenges
together with behavioral and cognitive deficits. Studies considering both age and sex remain …

The pathophysiology of degenerative, infectious, inflammatory and traumatic diseases of the
central nervous system includes a significant immune component. As to the latter, damage to …