Increasing anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are enhancing the concern of global warming and climate change. Research efforts across the globe have expedited with the aim of forming a carbon capture and storage (CCS) industry to mitigate and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from point source emitters (predominantly coal-burning power stations)(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2005).

According to the federal government of Australia, 20% of the 500 largest emitters of CO2 include the coal and mining industries (BDO Australia, 2011). While coal mining has a direct impact on CO2 emissions, metal mining and other mining related activities (eg, fugitive emissions and metal production) also have significant impact. Greenhouse gas emissions are associated with the consumption of energy from the exploration through mining to the production of refined metal. Every ore body has its own characteristics and requires particular techniques to mine, mill, smelt and refine. In addition, most base metals are produced in concentrate that must be transported to smelters with consequent CO2 emissions. Farrell (2009) states that CO2 emissions from copper mining, shipping, smelting and refining average 3.33 ton CO2 per ton copper, compared with 2.28 ton CO2 per ton zinc and 19.53 ton CO2 per ton nickel for finished nickel production.