In this Perspective, we put forward an integrative framework to improve estimates of land-
atmosphere carbon exchange based on the accumulation of carbon in the landscape as
constrained by its lateral export through rivers. The framework uses the watershed as the
fundamental spatial unit and integrates all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems as well as their
hydrologic carbon exchanges. Application of the framework should help bridge the existing
gap between land and atmosphere-based approaches and offers a platform to increase …