… pathway (eg, by decreasing inflammation), a causal effect of HDL cholesterol on coronary
heart disease may be claimed when the true causal effect is due to the alternate pathway. …

… use of genetic variation to address causal questions about how … Mendel’s laws of inheritance
and instrumental variable estimation methods, which enable the inference of causal effects …

… We conducted Mendelian randomization analyses by using a genetic score (GS) comprising
14 … causal effects of BMI on several cardiometabolic traits; however, whether BMI causally …

… causal effects, the Mendelian randomization approach can still estimate these causal effects.
… outcome may be intractable so that causal effects cannot be estimated from observational …

… the magnitude of causal effects, 2 , 20 , 22–25 with the choice of method depending on the
practical setting. Because the presentation of all methods to estimate causal effects is beyond …

… MR can provide more credible estimates of the causal effect of a risk factor on an outcome
than those obtained in observational studies by overcoming the limitations of observational …

… In this paper, we propose an extension of Mendelian randomization that uses … the causal
effect of each of the risk factors on the outcome. This “multivariable Mendelian randomization” …

… estimate of its causal effect could be biased. Mendelian randomization is a technique aimed
at unbiased detection of causal effects and, where possible, estimation of their magnitude. …

… In this chapter, we clarify what is meant by the causal effect of an exposure on an outcome.
We give a more detailed explanation of the theory of instrumental variables, and explain in …

… studies when the outcome is binary and we wish to express the causal effect as an odds
ratio or risk ratio, as is often the case in epidemiology. Several solutions are possible. First, a …