Integration and modularity refer to the patterns and processes of trait interaction and
independence. Both terms have complex histories with respect to both conceptualization …

Proper functioning of complex phenotypes requires that multiple traits work together.
Examination of relationships among traits within and between complex characters and how …

Phenotypic integration refers to the study of complex patterns of covariation among
functionally related traits in a given organism. It has been investigated throughout the 20th …

Biological systems, from molecular complexes to whole organisms and ecological
interactions, tend to have a modular organization. Modules are sets of traits that are …

The interrelationships among phenotypic traits of plants has been of interest to plant
evolutionary biologists for almost a century. Broadly defined, phenotypic integration refers to …

The concept of morphological integration describes the pattern and the amount of
correlation between morphological traits. Integration is relevant in evolutionary biology as it …

Although most studies on integration and modularity have focused on variation among
individuals within populations or species, this is not the only level of variation for which …

The study of phenotypic integration concerns the modular nature of organismal phenotypes.
The concept provides a rationale for why certain subsets of phenotypic traits show …

Evolutionary endocrinology represents a synthesis between comparative endocrinology and
evolutionary genetics. This synthesis can be viewed through the breeder's equation, a …

The modular variation of organismal form during evolution or development can be viewed as
the result of dissociated local developmental processes. Whereas studies of modularity often …