Protection against infection hinges on a close interplay between the innate immune system
and the adaptive immune system. Depending on the type and context of a pathogen, the …

Immunological memory is an important evolutionary trait that improves host survival upon
reinfection. Memory is a characteristic recognized within both the innate and adaptive arms …

The innate arm of the immune system has generally been regarded as primitive and non-
specific and, in contrast to adaptive immunity, not to possess memory. Here we review the …

Unlike the adaptive immune system, the innate immune system has classically been
characterized as being devoid of memory functions. However, recent research shows that …

Immunological memory is a cardinal feature of the adaptive immune system, but there is a
growing appreciation that innate immune cells can also show memory-like behaviour. Two …

Highlights•Live vaccines may confer protection against non-targeted pathogens.•This
process involves reprogramming of both innate and adaptive cells.•T cell may differentiate …

There has been much debate on the contribution of processes such as the persistence of
antigens, cross-reactive stimulation, homeostasis, competition between different lineages of …

BACKGROUND Host immune responses are classically divided into innate immune
responses, which react rapidly and nonspecifically upon encountering a pathogen, and …

Highlights•Classic immunological memory has been a hallmark feature of the adaptive
immune system.•Innate B cells, innate T cells, and NK cells can demonstrate properties of …

Infectious diseases are a leading cause of death worldwide with over 8 million fatalities
accounted for in 2016. Solicitation of host immune defenses by vaccination is the treatment …