Tramadol, an analgesic classified as an “atypical opioid”, exhibits both opioid and non-
opioid mechanisms of action. This study aimed to explore these mechanisms, specifically …

Persistent stimulation of nociceptors and C-fibers by tissue injury causes hyperalgesia and
allodynia by sensitization of nociceptors and facilitation of synaptic transmission in the spinal …

Recently, it has been known that the antinociception of sildenafil, a phosphodiesterase 5
inhibitor, is mediated through the opioid receptors. There are common three types of opioid …

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to examine the nature of interaction between
cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor meloxicam and inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor …

Background Recent studies have shown that influence of antidepressants on analgesic
action of opioids is heterogeneous. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of …

Metformin, an AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activator, is an oral hypoglycemic drug
widely used to treat patients with type 2 diabetes. As AMPK plays a role in the nociceptive …

Diabetic neuropathy is one of the most frequent peripheral neuropathies associated with
hyperalgesia and hyperesthesia. Besides alteration in the levels of neurotransmitter …

Background Opioid induced neuroinflammation is shown to be implicated in opioid
analgesic tolerance development. In the present study the effect of pioglitazone on morphine …

Purpose The inhibition of phosphodiesterase 5 produces an antinociception through the
increase of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), and increasing cGMP levels enhance …

We investigated whether tramadol could suppress both neuropathic and inflammatory pain
in mice at the same dose level. We also examined the effects of drugs metabolized by …