Ecological immunology aims to explain variation among hosts in the strength and efficacy of
immunological defenses. However, a shortcoming has been the failure to link host immune …

Background Invasive parasites are a major threat to island populations of animals. Darwin's
finches of the Galápagos Islands are under attack by introduced pox virus (Poxvirus avium) …

Hosts have developed and evolved defense strategies to limit parasite damage. Hosts can
reduce the damage that parasites cause by decreasing parasite fitness (resistance) or …

The evolution of parasite virulence has been hypothesized to be related to the mode of
parasite transmission; horizontally transmitted parasites can afford to damage their hosts …

Background Introduced parasites are a particular threat to small populations of hosts living
on islands because extinction can occur before hosts have a chance to evolve effective …

Introduced parasites threaten native host species that lack effective defenses. Such
parasites increase the risk of extinction, particularly in small host populations like those on …

Seasonal changes in the impact of parasites on hosts should result in seasonal changes in
immune function. Since both ectoparasites and endoparasites time their reproduction to that …

Background Blood-feeding arthropods can harm their hosts in many ways, such as through
direct tissue damage and anemia, but also by distracting hosts from foraging or watching for …

Ecological immunology is a rapidly expanding field of research that attempts to explain
variation in immune function across individuals, populations and species. Birds and …

As a consequence of the deleterious effects of parasites on host fitness, hosts have evolved
responses to minimize the negative impact of parasite infection. Facultative parasite …