Females and males differ in the energy consumption and nutritional requirements which are
based on the interactions between environmental factors and sex hormones (1). The studies …

In general, females have stronger innate and adaptive (humoral and cellular) immune
responses in comparison to males. The factors responsible for the stronger immune …

Males and females have the same immunological cells, proteins, and pathways in place to
protect against the development of disease. The kinetics, magnitude, and skewing of the …

Women have stronger immune responses to infections and vaccination than men.
Paradoxically, the stronger immune response comes at a steep price, which is the high …

Males and females differ in their immunological responses to foreign and self-antigens and
show distinctions in innate and adaptive immune responses. Certain immunological sex …

Sex hormones are key determinants of gender-related differences and regulate growth and
development during puberty. They also exert a broad range modulation of immune cell …

Immune responses to antigens, including innocuous, self, tumor, microbial, and vaccine
antigens, differ between males and females. The quest to uncover the mechanisms for …

In addition to their effects on sexual differentiation and reproduction, sex hormones appear
to influence the immune system. This results in a sexual dimorphism in the immune …

The significant contributions of sex to an immune response, specifically in the context of the
sex bias observed in susceptibility to infectious and autoimmune diseases and their …

Sexual dimorphism refers to differences between biological sexes that extend beyond
sexual characteristics. In humans, sexual dimorphism in the immune response has been …