One of the most fundamental questions in immunology pertains to the recognition of non-
self, which for the most part means microbes. How do we initially realize that we have been …

The Toll-like receptors are the primary sensors of the innate immune system. This
assignment of function was predicated on positional cloning, and was the result of long and …

Macrophages and dendritic cells are in the front line of host defense. When they sense host
invasion, they produce cytokines that alert other innate immune cells and also abet the …

Abstract The Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key molecules involved in the recognition of
pathogens by the innate immune system. This family of germ line-encoded receptors has …

Immunity in higher organisms can be broadly categorized into adaptive immunity and innate
immunity. Adaptive immunity is mediated by clonally distributed T and B lymphocytes which …

Abstract The Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the key proteins that allow mammals—whether
immunologically naive or experienced—to detect microbes. They lie at the core of our …

The discovery of host‐encoded gene products that sense molecular patterns in infectious
microbes, and the demonstration of their role in triggering innate and adaptive immune …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) constitute an archetypal pattern recognition system. Their
sophisticated biology underpins the ability of innate immunity to discriminate between highly …

Recognition of pathogens is mediated by a set of germline-encoded receptors that are
referred to as pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). These receptors recognize conserved …

Many genes, and conceivably most genes, are constitutively expressed yet have conditional
functions. Their products are utilized only under special circumstances, and enforce …