Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important signal transducers that mediate inflammatory
reactions induced by microbes through pattern recognition of virulence molecules such as …

Toll‐like receptors (TLRs) have emerged as one of the most important families of innate
immune receptors for initiating inflammation and also for promoting adaptive immune …

B lymphocytes are regarded as professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) despite their
primary role in humoral immunity. Over the last two decades, studies designed to define the …

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling and phagocytosis are hallmarks of macrophage-mediated
innate immune responses to bacterial infection. However, the relationship between these …

CERTAIN antigens are known to be immunogenic in the absence of thymus-derived (T)
lymphocytes1–5. One extreme explanation of this is that all antigens are fundamentally …

One of the most fundamental questions in immunology pertains to the recognition of non-
self, which for the most part means microbes. How do we initially realize that we have been …

The landmark discovery of pattern-recognition receptors, including Toll-like receptors
(TLRs), furthered our understanding on how the host rapidly responds to invading …

Balanced induction of proinflammatory and type I IFN responses upon activation of Toll-like
receptors (TLRs) determines the outcome of microbial infections and the pathogenesis of …

The rapid differentiation of monocytes into macrophages (M Φ) and dendritic cells is a
pivotal aspect of the innate immune response. Differentiation is triggered following …

Immunity in higher organisms can be broadly categorized into adaptive immunity and innate
immunity. Adaptive immunity is mediated by clonally distributed T and B lymphocytes which …