PRRs. The PRRs that are able to induce gene expression, which we refer to as signaling
PRRs, were unknown until recently, and the first clues as to their nature had been suggested …

Induction of the adaptive immune response depends on the expression of co-stimulatory
molecules and cytokines by antigen-presenting cells. The mechanisms that control the initial …

Innate immunity is the first-line host defense of multicellular organisms that rapidly operates
to limit infection upon exposure to infectious agents. In addition, the cells and molecules …

The identification of the Drosophila melanogaster Toll pathway cascade and the subsequent
characterization of TLRs have reshaped our understanding of the immune system. Ever …

Mechanisms that control the activation of antigen-specific immune responses in vivo are
poorly understood. It has been suggested that the initiation of adaptive immune responses is …

The Toll-mediated signaling cascade using the NF-κB pathway has been shown to be
essential for immune responses in adult Drosophila, and we recently reported that a human …

Signaling through Toll‐like receptor 4 (TLR4) is thought to initiate innate and adaptive
immune responses. Signaling of TLR4 is usually studied using isolated cells, which are …

In 1997, a human homologue of the Drosophila Toll protein was described, a protein later to
be designated Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Since that time, additional human and murine …

Innate immunity is the first-line host defense of multicellular organisms that rapidly operates
to limit infection upon exposure to microbes. It involves intracellular signaling pathways in …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been shown to participate in the recognition of pathogens by
the innate immune system, but it is not clear how a restricted family of receptors has the …