It is argued that larviparous development has evolved at least eight times among extant
animals. A 'need for speed hypothesis' is proposed to explain profound convergence on a …

The effects of food limitation on growth rates and survival of marine invertebrate larvae have
been studied for many years. Far less is known about how food limitation during the larval …

Molluscs show extraordinarily diverse feeding patterns, ranging from deposit feeding on
organic debris to raptorial feeding with poison darts. The ancestral condition is presumably …

Marine life histories differ from terrestrial life histories because seawater is denser and more
viscous than air, because desiccation is not a problem for organisms in water, and because …

Garstang's vision, of the adaptations of ancestral larvae providing body-plans for
descendants, was a useful model for the origins of new phyla. However, the concept of …

The early ontogeny of gastropods (ie, planktotrophic vs. nonplanktotrophic) may be inferable
from the morphology of the protoconch in adult shells. The protoconch consists of both …

Body size during larval development is one of the most important attributes of aquatic
animals. The optimal size for changing form or habitat may vary according to ecological traits …

Researchers have worked over the last thirty years to examine and understand phenotypic
plasticity in larvae of marine invertebrates. These studies range from documenting the …

The early ontogeny of Peraclis reticulata, Limacina inflata, L. trochiformis, Styliola subula,
Clio convexa, Cl. cuspidata, Hyalocylis striata, Creseis acicula, Cr. virgula, Cuvierina …

The long-standing hypothesis (Thorson, 1946, 1950; Mileikovsky, 1971; Jablonski & Lutz,
1983) that deep-sea invertebrates should reproduce by direct development or by non …