Seasonal changes in the impact of parasites on hosts should result in seasonal changes in
immune function. Since both ectoparasites and endoparasites time their reproduction to that …

The evolution of parasite virulence has been hypothesized to be related to the mode of
parasite transmission; horizontally transmitted parasites can afford to damage their hosts …

Ecological immunology is a rapidly expanding field of research that attempts to explain
variation in immune function across individuals, populations and species. Birds and …

Immune responses have evolved to defend hosts efficiently against the debilitating effects of
parasites on host fitness. However, there are relatively few studies of the efficiency of the …

Life-history traits and secondary sexual characters often demonstrate condition-
dependence, and reproductive success thus ultimately appears to be determined by …

Parasites may impose stronger selection pressures on their hosts in the tropics compared to
non-tropical climatic zones because parasite abundance is not reduced by the adverse …

Developmental periods are integral components of life history strategies that can have
important fitness consequences and vary enormously among organisms. However, the …

Ecological immunology aims to explain variation among hosts in the strength and efficacy of
immunological defenses. However, a shortcoming has been the failure to link host immune …

Animal hosts defend themselves against parasites by the antibodies produced by an
immune system. It is an inherent assumption that parasites constitute the selection pressure …

Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) nests rarely are parasitized by brown-headed
cowbirds (Molotrus ater). Kingbirds are one of a dozen or so species known to eject cowbird …