… Anti-predator behaviors are influenced by a complex set of environmental, temporal, and
individual factors. We explored the effects of predator exposure and intraspecific interactions on …

… Many experiments have shown that antipredator responses … and the strength of antipredator
responses, particularly for … field study to examine behavioral responses to the immediate …

… Thus, natural selection favours antipredator responses because they reduce the rate of …
to be offset by costs of response. Antipredator responses can be behavioural, morphological, …

… appreciated that these antipredator responses depend on … temporal variations in predator
risk. Lima and Bednekoff [72] pointed out that by ignoring the importance of temporal variations …

… taking into account the temporal variation in risk, inherent within all predator–prey relationships,
so as to accurately reflect population-level antipredator response. We recommend that …

… , we examined how behavioural responses to an upper-level … We also predicted that responses
to the model lingcod, such … maturity have stronger antipredator responses and therefore …

… Further studies are needed to identify general patterns of how temporal variation in predation
risk influences antipredator behaviour of different types of prey in different environments. It …

… Our results corroborate recent findings that antipredator behaviour has the potential to
directly influence the energy intake of elk (Christianson and Creel 2010) through a trade-off …

… Temporal variation of behavioral responses in the tadpoles … antipredator responses remain
unclear. Because of the costly nature of defense, prey must scale investments in antipredator …

… Due to the costs associated with antipredator responses, prey would be at a … antipredator
responses to conspecific alarm cues. In this study, we investigated the nature of the responses …