Anemia of chronic disease (ACD) is frequently observed in patients with chronic diseases as
a significant contributor to morbidity and mortality, which can aggravate the severity of
symptoms of the underlying inflammatory status. The pathophysiology of ACD is
multifactorial, including three mechanisms: shortened erythrocyte survival, impaired
proliferation of erythroid progenitor cells, and abnormalities of iron metabolism. These
mechanisms are “immune and inflammation”-driven, but several other factors, including …