Fermentation of the sugars in bread dough produces carbon dioxide which diffuses through
the dough matrix into the gas cell nuclei formed during dough mixing. As a result, the void
fraction of the dough increases and dough density decreases. It is shown in this paper that
low intensity ultrasound can be used to monitor changes in the void fraction of this opaque
material, thus providing real-time information on changes in the structure of the dough
during fermentation. Doughs were mixed under two different mixer headspace conditions …