The main modes of action of insect parasitoids are considered to be killing their hosts with
egg laying followed by offspring development (reproductive mortality), and adults feeding on
hosts directly (host feeding). However, parasitoids can also negatively affect their hosts in
ways that do not contribute to current or future parasitoid reproduction (nonreproductive
effects). Outcomes of nonreproductive effects for hosts can include death, altered behavior,
altered reproduction, and altered development. On the basis of these outcomes and the …