The innate immune system in drosophila and mammals senses the invasion of
microorganisms using the family of Toll receptors, stimulation of which initiates a range of …

Immunity in higher organisms can be broadly categorized into adaptive immunity and innate
immunity. Adaptive immunity is mediated by clonally distributed T and B lymphocytes which …

Double-stranded ribonucleic acid (dsRNA) serves as a danger signal associated with viral
infection and leads to stimulation of innate immune cells. In contrast, the immunostimulatory …

Endosomal TLRs play an important role in innate immune response as well as in
autoimmune processes. In the therapy of systemic lupus erythematosus, antimalarial drugs …

Recognition of microbial infection and initiation of host defense responses is controlled by
multiple mechanisms. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have recently emerged as a key component …

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite of global importance. In the laboratory setting, T.
gondii is frequently used as a model pathogen to study mechanisms of T helper 1 (TH1) cell …

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a prototypical autoimmune arthritis affecting nearly 1% of the
world population and is a significant cause of worldwide disability. Though prior studies …

In the decade since the discovery that mouse B cells respond to certain unmethylated CpG
dinucleotides in bacterial DNA, a specific receptor for these'CpG motifs' has been identified …

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a potent regulatory cytokine with diverse effects on
hemopoietic cells. The pivotal function of TGF-β in the immune system is to maintain …

Beginning with the physical barrier presented by the epithelium, infectious agents such as
viruses and bacteria encounter an array of cellular and molecular countermeasures that …