Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons are central to reward processes. In general, rewarding
stimuli increase, and aversive stimuli decrease, both DA spike firing and terminal release …

Separate studies have implicated the lateral habenula (LHb) or amygdala-related regions in
processing aversive stimuli, but their relationships to each other and to appetitive …

Separate studies have implicated the lateral habenula (LHb) or amygdala-related regions in
processing aversive stimuli, but their relationships to each other and to appetitive …

Midbrain dopamine neurons are an essential part of the circuitry underlying motivation and
reinforcement. They are activated by rewards or reward-predicting cues and inhibited by …

Ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) are midbrain
structures known to be involved in mediating reward in rodents. Lateral habenula (LHb) is …

Lateral habenula (LHb) neurons signal negative “reward-prediction errors” and inhibit
midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons. Yet LHb neurons are largely glutamatergic, indicating that …

Dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra (SN) and ventral tegmental area generally
respond to aversive stimuli or the absence of expected rewards with transient inhibition of …

Lateral habenula (LHb) neurons convey aversive and negative reward conditions through
potent indirect inhibition of ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopaminergic neurons. Although …

Reward learning is increasingly well understood to involve a major role of dopamine (DA) in
reward-seeking and reinforcement, but reward-seeking behavior almost always incurs some …

The dorsal diencephalic conduction system (DDC) is a highly conserved pathway in
vertebrates that provides a route for the neural information to flow from forebrain to midbrain …