Systemically administered opioids are among the most powerful analgesics for treating
severe pain. Several negative side effects (respiratory depression, addiction, nausea and …

Opioid receptors comprise μ (MOP), δ (DOP), κ (KOP), and nociceptin/orphanin FQ (NOP)
receptors. Opioids are agonists of MOP, DOP, and KOP receptors, whereas …

Endogenous opioid peptides and prescription opioid drugs modulate pain, anxiety and
stress by activating opioid receptors, currently classified into four subtypes. Here we …

Opioids are the most effective drugs for the treatment of severe pain, but they also cause
addiction and overdose deaths, which have led to a worldwide opioid crisis. Therefore, the …

Stress is an essential adaptive response that enables the organism to cope with challenges
and restore homeostasis. Different stressors require distinctive corrective responses in …

IL-4 is a pleiotropic antiinflammatory cytokine, which can be neuroprotective after nervous
system injury. The beneficial actions of IL-4 are thought to result from the blunting of action of …

The immune system is critically involved in the development and maintenance of chronic
pain. However, T cells, one of the main regulators of the immune response, have only …

Chronic pain remains unsatisfactorily treated, and few novel painkillers have reached the
market in the past century. Increasing the levels of the main endogenous opioid peptides …

Almost all G‐protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are regulated by phosphorylation and this
process is a key event in determining the signalling properties of this receptor super‐family …

The concept that the immune system can communicate with peripheral sensory neurons to
modulate pain is based mostly on documented interactions between opioid ligands and …