Cognitively driven pupil modulations reflect certain underlying brain functions. What do
these reflections tell us? Here, we review findings that have identified key roles for three …

Acetylcholine (ACh) has a crucial role in the peripheral and central nervous systems. The
enzyme choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) is responsible for synthesizing ACh from acetyl …

Chronic, pathological pain remains a global health problem and a challenge to basic and
clinical sciences. A major obstacle to preventing, treating, or reverting chronic pain has been …

The release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine throughout the mammalian brain is
important for modulating attention, arousal, and cognition during many behaviors …

Emotional arousal enhances perception and memory of high-priority information but impairs
processing of other information. Here, we propose that, under arousal, local glutamate levels …

Theta and gamma frequency oscillations occur in the same brain regions and interact with
each other, a process called cross-frequency coupling. Here, we review evidence for the …

In the long-term, with progression of the illness, Parkinson's disease dementia affects up to
90% of patients with Parkinson's disease. With increasing life expectancy in western …

Pupillometry has long been used as a measure of brain state. Changes in pupil diameter are
thought to coincide with the activity of neuromodulators, including noradrenaline and …

We take for granted the ability to fall asleep or to snap out of sleep into wakefulness, but
these changes in behavioral state require specific switching mechanisms in the brain that …

Sleep is a complex physiological process that is regulated globally, regionally, and locally
by both cellular and molecular mechanisms. It occurs to some extent in all animals, although …