The upregulation of immune checkpoint molecules, such as programmed cell death protein
1 (PD1) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4), on immune cells occurs during acute …

PD-1 as an immune checkpoint molecule down-regulates T cell activity during immune
responses in order to prevent autoimmune tissue damage. In chronic infections or tumors …

T-cell exhaustion is a phenomenon of dysfunction or physical elimination of antigen-specific
T cells reported in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and …

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Tremelimumab is a monoclonal antibody that blocks cytotoxic T-
lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), an inhibitory co-receptor that interferes with T …

T cell exhaustion is a state of T cell dysfunction that arises during many chronic infections
and cancer. It is defined by poor effector function, sustained expression of inhibitory …

Chronic infections strain the regenerative capacity of antiviral T lymphocyte populations,
leading to failure in long-term immunity. The cellular and molecular events controlling this …

Abstract Programmed Death-1 (PD-1), an inhibitory receptor expressed by activated
lymphocytes, is involved in regulating T-and B-cell responses. PD-1 and its ligands are …

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections account for 57% of
cases of liver cirrhosis and 78% of cases of primary liver cancer worldwide and cause a …

Abstract Programmed death 1 (PD-1) and its ligands, namely PD-L1 and PD-L2, are one of
the key factors responsible for inhibitory T cell signaling, mediating the mechanisms of …

Although robust and highly effective anti-viral T cells contribute to the clearance of many
acute infections, viral persistence is associated with the development of functionally inferior …