Avoidance is a key characteristic of adaptive and maladaptive fear. Here, we review past
and contemporary theories of avoidance learning. Based on the theories, experimental …

The synthetic cathinones are derived from the naturally occurring drug cathinone found in
the khat plant (Catha edulis) and have chemical structures and neurochemical …

Evidence has demonstrated that dynorphin (DYN) and the kappa opioid receptor (KOR)
system contribute to various psychiatric disorders, including anxiety, depression, and …

The study of sex as a biological variable is a necessary emphasis across a wide array of
endpoints, including basic neuroscience, medicine, mental health, physiology and behavior …

Taste refers to those sensations perceived through taste buds on the tongue and oral cavity.
The unpleasant taste of drugs leads to the refusal of taking the medicine in the paediatric …

The gustatory system serves as a critical line of defense against ingesting harmful
substances. Technological advances have fostered the characterization of peripheral …

In 1991, Woods described the paradoxical nature of eating, specifically, that it produced
aversive and negative effects. He noted in this analysis the multiple physiological and …

Continued methamphetamine (MA) use is dependent on a positive MA experience and is
likely attenuated by sensitivity to the aversive effects of MA. Bidirectional selective breeding …

Although rats are incapable of vomiting, they demonstrate profound avoidance of a flavor
previously paired with an emetic drug. They also display conditioned gaping reactions …

Most globally popular drugs are plant neurotoxins or their close chemical analogs. These
compounds evolved to deter, not reward or reinforce, consumption. Moreover, they reliably …