The identification of the Drosophila melanogaster Toll pathway cascade and the subsequent
characterization of TLRs have reshaped our understanding of the immune system. Ever …

The plant basal immune system can detect broadly present m icrobe-a ssociated m olecular
p atterns (MAMPs, also called PAMPs) and induce defenses, but adapted microbes express …

Insects possess an immune system that protects them from attacks by various pathogenic
microorganisms that would otherwise threaten their survival. Immune mechanisms may deal …

The Toll family of class I transmembrane receptors recognizes and responds to diverse
structures associated with pathogenic microorganisms. These receptors mediate initial …

Signal transduction pathways activated by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have continued to be a
major focus of research for investigators interested in the initiation of innate immune …

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling is subjected to crosstalk from other signals, with a resulting
positive or negative effect. There is complex crosstalk between the NLR family of immune …

The nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathways play a major role in Drosophila host defense. Two
recognition and signaling cascades control this immune response. The Toll pathway is …

The Toll/IL‐1 receptor (TIR) domain plays a central role in Toll‐like receptor (TLR) signalling.
All TLRs contain a cytoplasmic TIR domain, which, upon activation, acts as a scaffold to …

Since Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling was found crucial for the activation of innate and
adaptive immunity, it has been the focus of immunological research. There are at least 13 …

The Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a class I transmembrane receptor expressed on the
surface of immune system cells. TLR4 is activated by exposure to lipopolysaccharides …