The immune system evolved under selective pressure that mutations affecting these
structures are lethal for imposed by infectious microorganisms. As a result, all the microbes …

For many years, innate immunity has been considered as a separate entity from the adaptive
immune response and has been regarded to be of secondary importance in the hierarchy of …

The CD28 receptor is stimulated during the contact of T cells with antigen-presenting cells. A
counter-receptor for CD28 is the B7 molecule expressed on activated B cells, dendritic cells …

Pathogen invasion induces a rapid inflammatory response initiated through the recognition
of pathogen‐derived molecules by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) expressed on both …

Cancer immunotherapy has made great strides in the recent decade, especially in the area
of immune checkpoint blockade. The outstanding efficacy, prolonged durability of effect, and …

As CD4 T cells control the activation of B cells, macrophages, and, in some cases, CD8 T
cells, the activation of naive CD4T cells by antigen may be the most important event in the …

Detection of and response to microbial infections by the immune system depends largely on
a family of pattern-recognition receptors called Toll-like receptors (TLRs). These receptors …

Work in recent years has shown an essential role for Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the
activation of innate and adaptive immunity in vertebrate animals. These germ-line encoded …

When I was a young medical student, an interesting discus-sion was going on about how
antibody diversity was encoded; was the antibody molecule encoded in many genes, one for …

Antigen cross-presentation is an adaptation of the cellular process of loading MHC-I
molecules with endogenous peptides during their biosynthesis within the endoplasmic …