During the past 6 years, there have been substantial advances in our understanding of
human immunodeficiency virus 1 and other viruses, such as hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C …

In vitro methods are common and widely used for screening and ranking chemicals, and
have also been taken into account sporadically for risk assessment purposes in the case of …

Parasites and infectious diseases are everywhere and represent some of the most potent
forces shaping the natural world. They affect almost every aspect imaginable in the life of …

We consider the lifetime of a T cell clonotype, the set of T cells with the same T cell receptor,
from its thymic origin to its extinction in a multiclonal repertoire. Using published estimates of …

▪ Abstract Immune responses can cause severe disease, despite the role immunity plays in
defending against parasitism. Indeed, immunopathology is a remarkably common cause of …

The immune system must avoid aggressive T-cell responses against self-antigens. But,
paradoxically, exposure to self-peptides seems to have an important role in positive …

We propose an evolutionary perspective to classify and characterize the diverse systems of
adaptive immunity that have been discovered across all major domains of life. We put …

Memory and specificity are hallmarks of the adaptive immune system. Contrary to prior
belief, innate immune systems can also provide forms of immune memory, such as immune …

The peripheral T cell repertoire is sculpted from prototypic T cells in the thymus bearing
randomly generated T cell receptors (TCR) and by a series of developmental and selection …

Vertebrates have evolved an adaptive immune system in addition to the ancestral innate
immune system. It is often assumed that a trade–off between costs and benefits of defence …