Background The pathogenic roles of receptor-mediated sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P)
signaling in cerebral ischemia have been evidenced mainly through the efficacy of FTY720 …

Astrocytes are dynamic cells that maintain brain homeostasis, regulate neurotransmitter
systems, and process synaptic information, energy metabolism, antioxidant defenses, and …

The IκB kinase complex IKK is a central component of the signaling cascade that controls NF-
κB–dependent gene transcription. So far, its function in the brain is largely unknown. Here …

Neurologists have highly observed a frequent increasing number of elderly patients with
Alzheimer's disease (AD) without any relevant evidence of any genetic or known AD‐linked …

In the environmental and organism context, oxidative stress is complex and unavoidable.
Organisms simultaneously cope with a various combination of stress factors in natural …

The glutamate transporter gene, EAAT2/GLT‐1, is induced by epidermal growth factor (EGF)
and downregulated by tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). While TNFα is generally recognized …

Abstract Parkinson's disease (PD), the most common movement disorder, comprises several
pathophysiologic mechanisms including misfolded alpha‐synuclein aggregation …

Ethnopharmacological relevance After cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, pro-
inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes of microglia are involved in …

Aerobic cells adjust the expression of antioxidant enzymes to maintain reactive oxygen
species within tolerable levels. In addition, phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K) and its …

The transcription factor NF-κB is a key regulator of inflammation and cell survival. NF-κB is
activated by cerebral ischemia in neurons and glia, but its function is controversial. To inhibit …