B cells and the antibodies they produce have a deeply penetrating influence on human
physiology. Here, we review current understanding of how B cell responses are initiated; the …

Molecular mimicry is one of the leading mechanisms by which infectious or chemical agents
may induce autoimmunity. It occurs when similarities between foreign and self-peptides …

The human gastrointestinal tract is inhabited by a vast number of microorganisms that are
called as the microbiota. Each individual harbors a unique gut microbial composition, this …

Metal‐based nanoparticles (NPs) are particularly important tools in tissue engineering‐,
drug carrier‐, interventional therapy‐, and biobased technologies. However, their complex …

Since the receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL), its cognate receptor
activator of nuclear factor-kappa B (RANK), and the decoy receptor osteoprotegerin (OPG) …

The interaction over time of genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors (ie, autoimmune
ecology) increases or decreases the liability an individual would have to develop an …

Immune‐mediated diseases (IMDs) are chronic conditions that have an immune‐mediated
etiology. Clinically, these diseases appear to be unrelated, but pathogenic pathways have …

Abstract Selective IgA deficiency (SIgAD) is the most common primary immunodeficiency but
does not always result in clinical disease. This may in part be due to the definition based on …

The TGFβ superfamily is composed of more than 33 growth and differentiation factors,
including TGFβ1, β2, β3, BMPs, GDFs, nodal-related proteins, and activins. These members …

As aerobic organisms, we are continuously and throughout our lifetime subjected to an
oxidizing atmosphere and, most often, to environmental threats. The lung is the internal …