Long COVID is the patient-coined term for the disease entity whereby persistent symptoms
ensue in a significant proportion of those who have had COVID-19, whether asymptomatic …

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are carboxylic acids with carbon atom numbers less than 6,
which are important metabolites of gut microbiome. Existing research shows that SCFAs …

The gut microbiota has a critical role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis. Alterations
in the intestinal microbiota and gut microbiota-derived metabolites have been recognized in …

The gut microbiota, including bacteria, archaea, fungi, viruses and phages, inhabits the
gastrointestinal tract. This commensal microbiota can contribute to the regulation of host …

The gastrointestinal (GI) system contains many different types of immune cells, making it a
key immune organ system in the human body. In the last decade, our knowledge has …

Immune tolerance deletes or suppresses autoreactive lymphocytes and is established at
multiple levels during the development, activation and effector phases of T and B cells …

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints.
Microbial infection is considered a crucial inducer of RA. Alterations in the composition of …

Mammalian aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor that
belongs to the basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH)–PAS family of transcription factors, which are …

Autoimmune diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis and
rheumatoid arthritis, have distinct clinical presentations but share underlying patterns of gut …

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) is a term that encompasses all B cells that act to suppress
immune responses. Bregs contribute to the maintenance of tolerance, limiting ongoing …